Welcome to work in Taiwan! Investigation of international students' employment opportunities

Introduction. Employment plays an important role in vocational development. However, not many studies of job search among international students have been reported.Aim. The current study aims to examine the relationship between self-efficacy, behavioural intentions, and perceived discrimination in the field of job search (JS).Methodology and research methods. The authors used Social Cognitive Model of Career Self-management (CSM) as the theoretical background to explain the relationships among the constructs of self-efficacy, behavioural intentions and perceived discrimination in JS. The study was conducted in a Chinese cultural context (Taiwan) with a sample of 301 international students from Southeast Asian countries. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was used to test the model about the relationships between the three variables in the study.Results and scientific novelty. The research findings show that self-efficacy strongly predicts behavioural intentions. Besides, self-efficacy partly mediates the influence of perceived discrimination on behavioural intentions. A quantitative research method was applied to investigate the population of international students, which has not been much reported in previous studies. This indicates that the influence of a contextual factor (e.g. perceived discrimination) on behavioural intentions is direct and indirect through self-efficacy.Practical significance. The research findings can be used by practitioners for enhancing self-efficacy and behavioural intentions as well as helping international students to cope with discrimination in the JS process.


Introduction
For recent years, while most studies have primarily related to international students' stress in terms of academic and psychological discipline such as adjustment [1,2]; well-being [3]; or cross-cultural adaptation and social support [4][5][6], international students' mobility [7,8], etc., only few studies were conducted in Asian host countries related to the issues such as experiences and challenges faced by international students using "push-pull" theory and social capital theory [9,10], acculturative stress and social connectedness, cross-cultural adaptation and dominant language [11,12], motivations and negotiations about cultural differences [13]. Lately, the scarcity of literature relevant to international students' vocational development and psychology leaves a big research gap. Thus, it is essential to conduct studies related to international students' vocational and psychological issues.
Due to globalisation and internationalisation, there has recently seen a mobility of international students around the world with an increasing number [14,15]. International students may become new sources of workforce in many countries. They express a stronger desire for career development and more motivated to find jobs than local students in host countries [16]. However, in order to obtain jobs, they have to face particular concerns and difficulties in aspects of language, culture or discrimination when they start seeking work, especially finding jobs is becoming harder for them when employment opportunities has dramatically decreased in the aftermath of Covid-19 [17].
International students may face the effect of "liability of foreignness" when they compete with local job seekers during the job search (JS) process. Liability of foreignness stems primarily from their differences in comparison to local people. This is the reason why, during post-graduation job search, they may encounter discrimination because of various differences (e.g. nationality and language) in comparison to the majority of people, which negatively influences their future vocational development [16,18]. In this regard, perceived discrimination by international students is also an important factor impacting on international students' job search process. However, not much research focused on people's perception of discrimination during the time of job search process. Therefore, this study aims to understand how discrimination influences JS process among international students.
From the perspective of practice, the visibility of foreignness (e.g. nationality and accents) makes this type of discrimination become more obvious among local employees. The current study aims to investigate to what extent the perception of discrimination affects international students. It helps to clarify their beliefs in regards with self-efficacy to make their own career choices and to perform what behaviours when they begin their job seeking in host countries. In this study, questions about perceptions of discrimination are used to explain what the students expect to encounter on their graduation and their self-efficacy as well as behavioural intentions when they try to look for jobs. It should be noted that many job applicants feel afraid and thus would prefer not to face risks or challenges that will possibly appear during JS process. For international students, job-hunting is full of anxiety due to the problems of discrimination such as vocational language and nationality, etc. [19]. Their career decisions should depend on what fits their foreign identity while considering discrimination when searching for jobs. Therefore, it is necessary to gain insights into how perception of discrimination influences international students' self-efficacy and behavioural intentions during the JS process. However, not much research [16] on international students' self-efficacy related to vocational and psychological issues has been carried out.

The Research Purpose
This study tries to make up the research gap by examining how perception of discrimination affects self-efficacy and behavioural intentions during the JS process among the population of international students. Furthermore, this study would like to emphasise the key role of self-efficacy in the relationship between discrimination as a contextual factor and behavioural intentions. In the current study, we would like to focus on the targeted population of international graduating students, who are currently studying in universities/colleges within a six-month timeframe close to their graduation and express interests in searching for employment in the host country. Besides, JS self-efficacy is used as a predictor of JS behavioural intentions. The relationships of these three variables reflect an intentional phase at situational level of motivation [20] that is proximal to behaviour and significantly influenced by external factors within JS process. This study purposes to make a contribution to the current literature body of employment search among the population of international students, especially in a different cultural/social perspective. Understanding their JS gives us a clearer awareness of international students' vocational development Welcome to work in Taiwan! Investigation of international students' employment opportunities involving JS tasks and challenges. The current study will make generalisability and will carry practical implications for the groups of international students.

Theoretical Framework
JS is conceptualised as a planned/rational process. An intentional or goal-establishment phase is indispensable during the JS process. JS is merely a motivational/behavioural process, which ends when people attain employment or abandon the searching goal. However, it is important to investigate to the impact of social-contextual factors throughout the process because JS process includes the interaction between individuals and the outside environment. As such, social cognitive model of career self-management (CSM) [21] was chosen as the background theory to clarify the relationships among the variables in the study. CSM model is the influential model of career development. It provides a general framework, which includes the relationship between situational and experiential factors and vocational behavioural intentions. CSM focuses on personal abilities and environmental resources in the course of behaviour. CSM also explains how an individual use adaptive career-related behavioural goals to self-direct his/her career [21].
JS is a very long journey. There are many obstacles, frustrations, and rejections in the process of achieving a long-distance goal (e.g. getting a job). JS takes place in a competitive environment, because in the process, people often have to compete with other job applicants, especially for international student job seekers, who have more difficulties than local ones. Therefore, JS may easily weaken their motivation in the process. Because of the complexity, difficulty, and rejection of vacancy hunting, JS activities are not always happy, enjoyable, and fun to job seekers. On the contrary, JS is generally regarded as offensive and requires tremendous effort. Although the tasks/activities are unpleasant, boring, disgusting and have various challenges, they are essential to achieve some worthwhile goals (e.g. obtaining a job). Thus, job seekers need to have the ability (e.g. self-efficacy) in order to keep determination and performance; then overcome difficulties that make them less motivated (for example, JS discrimination) to deal with the external environment [21].

Self-efficacy, behavioural intentions applied in JS
JS self-efficacy is "the belief that one can successfully perform specific JS behaviours and obtain employment [22]. Besides, CSM posits that self-efficacy of JS can strongly predict and determine performance-related goals [21]. Job seekers tend to have JS behavioural intentions when they are more confident. Much literature about JS reported that JS self-efficacy is a good precursor of behavioural intentions [22,23]. However, it is necessary to elucidate the relationship between these constructs in different contexts. In addition, it is noteworthy that although career-related self-efficacy has dominantly been used in various populations, relatively few studies have been conducted among international students in host countries [16].
Previous research has shown that international students may encounter obstacles while living away from their countries. Obstacles (such as cultural and language barriers, racial discrimination) [24] may negatively affect their academic and professional development. At the same time, based on empirical findings, JS self-efficacy can promote positive beliefs and adaptability, which may lead to positive JS behavioural intentions and behaviours under pressure [25]. Self-efficacy can become a good source of behavioural intentions throughout the searching process, even if facing failure or stress. Therefore, when investigating behavioural intentions in the area of career development among international students in a host country, we should focus on career-related self-efficacy.

Perceived discrimination, self-efficacy and intentions in JS
International students may face discrimination (e.g. cultural and racial discrimination) in host countries besides other challenges and difficulties, for instance, language barrier, cultural misunderstanding, financial supports, inclusion in the local community, etc. [26][27][28]. A report by the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development indicated that minorities are in a lower position in comparison to the majorities in the labour market. It showed that the country of residence accounts for the most variance (approximately 40 %) of unemployment rates among the population of African American. Thus, this result seems to indicate hiring discrimination in terms of nationality.
There is a difference between real discrimination and perceived discrimination among job seekers. Real discrimination refers to the unfair hiring treatment between the majorities and the minorities. Perceived discrimination refers to job seekers' perception of unfair treatment against them in terms of employment. Real discrimination and perceived discrimination are not always correlated. Job seekers may feel discriminated even when there is no real discrimination. However, it should be noted that the level of discrimination perception is the main cause for JS withdrawal among job seekers in spite of the level of real discrimination. Feelings of being discriminated or inferior to the other superior groups of students have big impacts on them when searching for employment or jobs [29]. Consequently, the perception of discrimination should be noticed when we examine international job seekers' JS issues.
Discrimination comes in many forms. According to National Research Council (2004), discrimination can be categorised into two forms: direct forms Welcome to work in Taiwan! Investigation of international students' employment opportunities and indirect forms. Direct forms of discrimination are differential treatment on the basis of race/ethnicity that disadvantages members of this racial/ethnic group. Indirect forms of discrimination are treatment involving factors, which are related to ethnicity such as languages or skills. In JS, direct forms of hiring discrimination are highly susceptible to host government's regulations and laws when a job seeker is rejected due to his/her race/ethnicity. As a consequence, most of hiring discrimination is mainly due to indirect forms such language proficiency or skills, which prevent local employers from accepting them. A study in a non-English speaking country -Taiwan [30] showed that many firms preferred to employ westerners because of the image of being "western" or to help employers to connect with western clients. Proficiency in host languages then becomes unimportant for westerners. However, for Southeast Asian job seekers, who come from developing countries without native English, they may have to face discrimination for being not "western" and non-native English speakers. Meanwhile, employers considered poor language skills as the number one barrier for employing international job seekers [31,32]. Poor level of local language proficiency may prevent them from orally presenting themselves to local employers or writing impressing resumes [42]. Therefore, their non-western impressions should be disadvantageous to them in JS.
In this study, we will consider the perception of discrimination in language and nationality as main barriers for Southeast Asian graduate students in Taiwan. These barriers are unique to international students and distinct from vocational barriers encountered by local students when searching for jobs. Moreover, it should be worth mentioning that in a Chinese social/cultural context, there is discrimination against other races based on the concept "Sino-centricism", which emphasises Chinese supremacy over neighbouring barbarians shaped by Confucian culture in terms of the cultural superiority [33,34]. Accordingly, international students of minorities can discriminatorily be treated by the local employers. Perceived discrimination prevents international students from integrating into new environments and causes them poor psychological well-being and depression and reaching career goals [29].
In the CSM model, a contextual factor (e.g. perceived JS discrimination) is proposed to be directly related to performance goals (e.g. behavioural intentions) and indirectly through self-efficacy. In this study, we examine perceived JS discrimination as a contextual factor among international job seekers. Perceived discrimination has been regarded as a crucial obstacle to an individual's educational and vocational development among many social groups such as race and gender discrimination [35]; Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual individuals [36,37]. Some other studies added that discrimination occurred owing to locals' prejudice against people of other groups (e.g. race, country, or class), an individual's appearance or inability to speak host languages fluently [38]. These studies revealed that there has been discrimination against minority groups among the majority, which has a negative impact on the minority's career development. Therefore, international students may face discrimination in host countries during JS process due to their differences (i.e. nationality and language). The effects that are produced by the perception of discrimination are proximally influential in job seeking tasks and intentions among international job seekers. Moreover, Lent and Brown [21] pointed that self-efficacy plays a role as mediator in the relationship between contextual factors and intentions. The mediating role of self-efficacy in the relationship of career exploration and personality was also discussed in previous studies [39]. Thus, based on the CSM model, we would like to investigate whether self-efficacy mediates the relationship between the perception of discrimination that appears in the JS process and behavioural intentions.
Based on the CSM model, we expect that in the field of JS (1) Self-efficacy significantly predicts behavioural intentions; (
Measures JS self-efficacy. The measure consists of 10 items based on the self-efficacy scale of Zikic & Saks [22]. The same scale has also been used to predict JS self-efficacy in a study by Saks et al. [23]. Since the purpose of the research is to investigate the JS behaviour of SEA students, the items used focus on JS behaviour. Respondents will use "1" to indicate "completely no confidence" to "5" to indicate "completely confident" to indicate that they are confident of successfully finding a job in Taiwan. The coefficient α in the current study is 0.96.

Welcome to work in Taiwan! Investigation of international students' employment opportunities
JS behavioural intentions. The measure consisting of 12 items based on Blau [40]. The scale adds another item about the work visa of the host country [16]. It is found that the scale is validated evidence that can measure JS behavioural intentions [23]. In this study, because the respondents may not have started their job search, we ask them to indicate to what extent they might be prepared and behave positively in the six months before graduation. The scale range refers to the intensity of the behavioural intentions, where "1" means "never or 0 times" to "5" means "very frequently or at least 10 times". The reliability coefficient α in this study is 0.95.
Perceived JS discrimination. The measure originated from the Future Job Discrimination Scale [18]. The measure was at first developed to evaluate perception of barriers in vocational and educational development with the targeted population of Mexican and European high school students. The scale focused on discrimination regarding to gender and race/ethnicity. The original scale was validated with the high internal consistency that are .89, .86 and .89 respectively [18]. In the current study, perceived job discrimination against nationality (e.g. In my future job, I may be treated differently due to my nationality) and language (e.g. In my future job, I may be treated differently treated because I am not a native Chinese speaker). The score was marked from "1" (Strongly Agree) to "5" (Strongly Disagree). A lower score indicated a corresponding higher level of perceived discrimination of nationality and language that job seekers expected in the future search. The reliability coefficient alpha was in the present study .93.

Results
Descriptive statistics shows the correlation between all constructs ( Table  1). Most of the constructs are significantly related to each other, which indicate that further analysis can be approximated to test the hypothesis. A confirmatory analysis was performed via AMOS 20 to test the validity of all constructs. A variety of indices include CFI ( >. 90), RMSEA ( <. 10), GFI ( >. 90) and X 2 /df ( < 3.00) , which is utilised to examine the fitness of the overall model [41]. The measurement model showed the indices of great fits (e.g. CFI = .967; X 2 /df = 1.560; RMSEA = 0.043). Therefore, our measurement model is appropriate to the testing of the theoretical structure model. The relationships among these constructs were tested with Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) analysis via AMOS 20 (Fig. 1). The method of maximum likelihood estimation was showed in SEM analysis. The analysis results revealed good fit indices; GFI = .853; CFI = .948; X 2 /df = 1.912; RMSEA = 0.055; TLI = .944; p < 0.001; thus they are considered to be good fit.

Structural equation modelling analyses (SEM)
Hypothesis testing was conducted using bivariate correlation. All the hypotheses are shown below, consisting of their correlations.

Welcome to work in Taiwan! Investigation of international students' employment opportunities
Hypothesis 1: Self-efficacy significantly predicts behavioural intentions; regression = .18, p-value < .01. Thus, hypothesis 1 is supported.
Bootstrapping analyses. We use bootstrapping analyses to test how self-efficacy mediates the relationship between perceived discrimination and behavioural intentions.
With the collected data (N = 301), we perform 1000 bootstrapping using AMOS software 20. The outputs suggested that self-efficacy is a good mediating factor in the influence of perceived discrimination on behavioural intentions (b = -.098 [CI: -.176, -.019]. Besides, 95 % CI of the estimates of mediation without zero indicated that the effect of the mediator is significant at the level .05 (β = -0.54 * 0.18 = 0.097) pointing out that behavioural intentions with 9.7 % of the variance was explained indirectly by perceived discrimination via self-efficacy. Thus, H4 is supported.

Discussion
The workforce mobility has lately been increasing because of the global economic downturn, especially in the aftermath of Covid-19 that has caused job losses and pursuit of job opportunities [42,43]. Therefore, in comparison to local job seekers, international students as a vulnerable population [44] have to face much more serious obstacles to their job seeking in the countries of graduation [17], especially discrimination due to their foreignness. An important factor that determines their JS activities is self-efficacy, which has a deep influence on the way international students cognitively respond to difficulties during the JS process. The study contributes to provide insights on an understudied topic about international students' job seeking. Based on the CSM model, the study aims to clarify the role of JS self-efficacy in the relationship between perceived discrimination as a contextual factor and behavioural intentions. In addition, the study also examines how perceived discrimination has an impact on the main constructs in JS. The findings in the present study are similar to previous studies related to the CSM model in job search, validating the CSM model, and supporting expected correlations between structures. Specifically, JS self-efficacy has been documented to be a good predictor to JS behavioural intentions. We found that international students, who reported higher behavioural intentions to search for job, have higher self-efficacy. The current study shows similar findings from previous studies [22,45], emphasising the role of self-efficacy to be the main structure that determines behavioural intentions. Moreover, the study focused on behavioural intentions related to actual JS activities, not general JS intentions. As such, JS self-efficacy in this study can better predict JS intentions.
Moreover, the results revealed that perception of nationality and language discrimination as a contextual factor negatively influenced JS intentions, selfefficacy. This finding shared some similarity with past studies about the relations of contextual variable with internal variables [21,46], highlighting that perceived discrimination or injustice during JS can reduce international job-seekers' belief in their confidence and also exert a negative impact on JS intentions and strategy [47]. Based on the CSM model, we can gain more understandings of the mechanism of the influence of contextual factors on self-efficacy and intentions throughout JS process.

Theoretical Implications
By conducting the investigation of international students, who are searching for jobs in Taiwan, the study provides us with a variety of implications about the JS process. Firstly, academically, the study tries to develop an understanding of the CSM model applied in career search. It constructs a theoretical framework to analyse their job search in the foreign labour market. Furthermore, the study attempts to make a significant contribution towards the field relevant to career, particularly in a Chinese culture context.
The study provides an overview of career development process that international students from the Southeast Asia may go through. Southeast Asian students' JS intention can be enhanced through developing JS self-efficacy. Moreover, the focused sample in this research only consists of graduating students from Southeast Asian countries like Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines. They all comprise a minority population in the host country -Taiwan and may become a new workforce in the future. Understanding their perceptions of searching process gives us a clearer awareness of international students' vocational development involving JS tasks and challenges so supports and beneficial policies can be offered.

Managerial Implications
In the current study, JS self-efficacy plays a very important part in the prediction of JS behavioural intentions. During JS process, when people are confronted by obstacles to goal attainment, whether or not they engage in selfenabling or negative self-talk depending on whether their self-efficacy is high or low [48]. Besides, people with higher level of self-efficacy have greater commitment to a high goal than people with lower level of self-efficacy that the goal is attainable.

Welcome to work in Taiwan! Investigation of international students' employment opportunities
As a consequence, it is essential to have some training to change negative self-talk into positive self-guidance fosters goal commitment and hence persistence in the JS process. Training like the mock selection interviews conducted by manager may result in higher JS self-efficacy in JS interview, for example, before actual JS. Encouraging international students to attend job fairs with more job interviews before graduation will help them to gain some valuable experience and learn how to prepare for post-graduation interview or JS. Furthermore, career counsellors can instruct Southeast Asian international job seekers to demonstrate the links between past working experience and future jobs in writing CVs and preparing for job interviews; conducting JS-related presentations as well as workshops (e.g. resume writing, interview, and working visa application), which are beneficial for increasing their sense of self-efficacy in JS skills. In addition, inviting international alumni to share their JS experiences may be helpful. Future international job seekers will learn to reduce anxiety or monitor psychological reactions during the JS and, thus, self-efficacy can be improved.
Moreover, to help and support job seekers in the process of looking for jobs, practitioners may thus need to concentrate on raising the individual's JS behavioural intentions. Among the methods to increase behavioural intentions is to establish realistic and within-reach targets (i.e. large and distal goals/targets should be separated into easy or proximal sub-goals/targets). Many international students may be overwhelmed or under pressure to search for employment/jobs because they are about to graduate, although some might feel eager for such activities. By establishing goals in reach, the students may understand what need to be done first and therefore help to decrease the anxieties/pressures. Moreover, practitioners should increase their JS self-efficacy by assisting these students to know about the specific/realistic JS tasks/activities that they have to complete (i.e. preparing CVs, the way to find a job openings/fairs using the internet) so as to increase competitiveness in the job market. JS workshops/ programmes with guides, rehearsing, and role modelling can have a great impact on promoting self-efficacy.
Next, for the effects of perceived JS discrimination, it should be addressed in the future JS and Southeast Asian students should be prepared to face the challenges resulting from this. Additionally, it provides both researchers and practitioners with information about how perceived JS discrimination influences an international individual's JS process. Some suggestions of reducing discrimination involve, for instance, offering cultural/academic exchange activities/programmes or job search platforms for Southeast Asian job seekers. This can better the connection between them and local people on and off campus. For example, "International Students Week", a programme, which helps to increase the cultural profiles of different countries, could be developed so that international students and local organisations can introduce their cultures to each other [44]. In terms of language barriers, Chinese proficiency teaching programmes or conversational groups on campus, etc., should be promoted to Southeast Asian students as a method to improve Chinese skills as well as enhancing their self-confidence in speaking Chinese. Providing international students with opportunities to talk to local students can not only improve their communication skills but also their adaptation to the local community [49].

Limitations and Future Research
Some limitations need to be dealt with in future research. Firstly, since the aim of this research is to examine Southeast Asian students, who partly constitute the population of international students in the country. In order to increase the universality of the studies about international students, future studies should include other populations of international students and then make some comparisons in the findings among various groups of international students. Secondly, this study only uses self-reported measures. Therefore, these behavioural intentions are not a reflection of experience in the real job market. Thirdly, all the participants were asked to fill in the survey only within 6 months before graduation. The time frame can partially provide evidence during the entire seeking process, and ignore the outcomes. As such, future studies should include the seeking outcomes to examine how much JS determinants influence on outcomes. Finally, other components of CSM should be used to examine the vocational issues about international issues, so that the theory of JS can be tested more comprehensively.