Психолингвистические и возрастные факторы в изучении иностранного языка: мета-анализ

Введение. Современные исследования в области усвоения второго/иностранного языка (L2) интегрируют когнитивные, аффективные и социокультурные факторы. Однако вариативность полученных результатов обусловлена методологической неоднородностью и возрастными различиями обучающихся. Цель исследования – систематизация эмпирических данных о влиянии рабочей памяти (РП), исполнительных функций (ИФ), мотивации, эмоционального интеллекта и тревожности на успешность овладения L2 в различных возрастных группах, а также выявление модераторов, связанных с типом задач и контекстом обучения. Методология, методы и методики. В соответствии с принципами PRISMA проведен систематический обзор и метаанализ исследований (2000 – сентябрь 2025 г.) на основе баз данных Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO и Google Scholar. Критерием включения служило наличие количественной оценки связи хотя бы одного из указанных психолингвистических факторов с результативностью в L2. Применялись модели со случайными эффектами (REML), оценка гетерогенности (Q, τ², I²), тест Эггера для анализа систематической ошибки и метод «trim-and-fill». В анализ модераторов включены возраст, тип языковой задачи и контекст (ESL/EFL/языковая среда). Результаты. Из 1246 публикаций критериям соответствовали 38 исследований. Установлены устойчивые корреляции успешности в L2 с РП (r ≈ 0,54) и ИФ (d ≈ 0,46), положительные связи с мотивацией (r ≈ 0,32) и эмоциональным интеллектом (r ≈ 0,29), а также отрицательная связь с тревожностью (r ≈ -0,25). Эффекты усиливались при выполнении лексических заданий и заданий на чтение, в контекстах ESL и языковой среды, а также среди молодых взрослых. У обучающихся старше 60 лет зафиксированы значимые, но более вариативные улучшения. Научная новизна. Выявлены предметно-специфические и возрастно-обусловленные механизмы связи РП/ИФ с результатами овладения L2. Впервые количественно оценены методологические модераторы, связанные с дизайном исследований. Практическая значимость. Результаты обосновывают необходимость разработки возрастно- и контекстно-ориентированных методик, сочетающих focus-on-form с развитием ИФ/РП и регуляцией тревожности, с применением адаптивных технологий, особенно для обучения старших возрастных групп.

1. Bialysto E. Reshaping the mind: the benefits of bilingualism. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. 2011;65(4):229–235. doi:10.1037/a0025406

2. Kroll J.F., Bialystok E. Understanding the consequences of bilingualism for language processing and cognition. Journal of Cognitive Psychology. 2013;25(5):497–514. doi:10.1080/20445911.2013.799170

3. Kapa L.L., Colombo J. Executive function predicts cognitive outcomes in bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 2017;20(1):83–97. doi:10.1017/S136672891500059X

4. Li P., Legault J., Litcofsky K.A. Neuroplasticity as a function of second language learning: anatomical changes in the human brain. Cortex. 2020;129:297–310. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2020.04.020

5. Cox J., Kapa L.L., Colombo J. Individual differences in executive function partially explain the effects of bilingualism on language processing. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 2019;22(3):425–436. doi:10.1017/S136672891800015X

6. Wen Z., Li S. Working memory and second language learning: towards an integrated approach. Applied Linguistics. 2019;40(2):265–284. doi:10.1093/applin/amx024

7. Baddeley A.D. Working memory: looking back and looking forward. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2003;10:829–839. doi:10.1038/nrn1201

8. Miyake A., Friedman N.P. The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2012;21(1):8–14. doi:10.1177/0963721411429458

9. Norton B. Identity, language learning, and social change. Language Teaching. 2020;53(2):194–207. doi:10.1017/S0261444819000325

10. Shin J. Meta-analysis of the relationship between working memory and L2 reading comprehension. Applied Psycholinguistics. 2020a;41(5):1081–1115. doi:10.1017/S014271642000023X

11. Shin J. A meta-analysis of the relationship between working memory and second language reading comprehension: does task type matter? Applied Psycholinguistics. 2020;41(4):873–900. doi:10.1017/S0142716420000272

12. O’Brien I., Opitz B. Working memory and second language sentence processing: evidence from neuroimaging. Neuropsychologia. 2020;139:107360. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107360

13. Dörnyei Z., Ushioda E. Teaching and Researching Motivation. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge; 2021. 296 p. doi:10.4324/9781351006743

14. De Costa P.I., Norton B. Identity in language learning and teaching: research agendas for the future. In: Preece S., ed. The Routledge Handbook of Language and Identity. Abingdon: Routledge; 2016:586–601.

15. Baddeley A. Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annual Review of Psychology. 2012;63:1–29. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422

16. Norton B., Toohey K. Identity, language learning, and social change. Language Teaching. 2011;44(4):412–446. doi:10.1017/S0261444811000309

17. Ellis N.C. Cognitive approaches to second language acquisition. In: Gass S., Spinner P., Behney J., eds. Salience in Second Language Acquisition. Routledge; 2017:11–44.

18. Green D.W., Abutalebi J. Language control in bilinguals: the adaptive control hypothesis. Journal of Cognitive Psychology. 2013;25(5):515–530. doi:10.1080/20445911.2013.796377

19. Skehan P. The context for researching a processing perspective on task performance. In: Skehan P., ed. Processing Perspectives on Task Performance. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company; 2014:1–26.

20. Linck J.A., Osthus P., Koeth J.T., Bunting M.F. Working memory and second language comprehension and production: a meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 2014;21(4):861–883. doi:10.3758/s13423-013-0565-2

21. Choi I. Working memory effects in second language reading. Applied Psycholinguistics. 2013;34(6):1257–1282. doi:10.1017/S0142716412000208

22. Sweller J., Ayres P., Kalyuga S. Cognitive Load Theory. New York: Springer; 2011. 274 p.

23. Paas F., Sweller J. An evolutionary upgrade of cognitive load theory: using the human motor system and collaboration to support the learning of complex cognitive tasks. Educational Psychology Review. 2012;24(1):27–45. doi:10.1007/s10648-011-9179-2

24. Lenneberg E.H. Biological Foundations of Language. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1967. 489 p.

25. Johnson J.S., Newport E.L. Critical period effects in second language learning: the influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology. 1989;21(1):60–99. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(89)90003-0

26. Hartshorne J.K., Tenenbaum J.B., Pinker S. A critical period for second language acquisition: evidence from 2/3 million English speakers. Cognition. 2018;177:263–277. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2018.04.007

27. Sawi O.M., Rueckl J.G. Reading and the neurocognitive bases of second language learning. Language Learning. 2019;69(S1):52–82. doi:10.1111/lang.12323

28. Saito K., Dewaele J.M, Abe M., In’nami Y. Motivation, emotion, and second language speech development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 2020;42(4):857–880. doi:10.1017/S0272263120000038

29. DeKeyser R., Larson-Hall J. What does the critical period really mean? In: Chapelle C., ed. The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Wiley; 2021:414–420.

30. Grossmann J.A., Aschenbrenner S., Teichmann B., Meyer P. Foreign language learning can improve response inhibition in individuals with lower baseline cognition: results from a randomized controlled superiority trial. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience. 2023;15:1123185. doi:10.3389/fnagi.2023.1123185

31. Meltzer J.A., Kates Rose M., Le A.Y., Spencer K.A., Goldstein L, Gubanova A., et al. Improvement in executive function for older adults through smartphone apps: a randomized clinical trial comparing language learning and brain training. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition. 2023;30(2):150–171. doi:10.1080/13825585.2021.1991262

32. Diamond A. Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology. 2013;64:135–168. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750

33. Sun H., Steinkrauss R., Wieling M., de Bot K. Predicting L2 proficiency from executive function measures. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 2023;26(2):299–314. doi:10.1017/S1366728922000337

34. Yurgil K.A., Golestani N. Bilingualism as a model for multitasking, cognitive reserve, and cognitive resilience. Neuropsychologia. 2018;111:286–297. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.01.012

35. Bubbico G., Tomaiuolo F., Sestieri C., Akhlaghipour G., Granzotto A., Martinotti G., et al. Foreign language learning in older adults modifies the pattern of resting-state activity in the medial prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neurological Sciences. 2025;475:123568. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2025.123568

36. Sun P., Li C., Liang Z. Working memory, L2 proficiency, and L2 speech performance across different task types. Language Teaching Research. 2025. doi:10.1177/13621688251368633

37. Ushioda E. Language Learning Motivation: An Ethical Agenda for Research. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2020. 46 p.

38. Papi M., Bondarenko A., Mansouri S., Feng L., Jiang C. Rethinking L2 motivation theory: the motivated self and emergent motivation. System. 2019;84:38–49. doi:10.1016/j.system.2019.04.011

39. Williams M., Sarah M., Stephen R. Exploring Psychology in Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford University Press; 2019. 184 p.

40. Lamb M., Arisandy F.E. The impact of technology on motivation in EFL classrooms. Language Teaching Research. 2020;24(3):326–345. doi:10.1177/1362168818788895

41. Hedges L.V., Vevea J.L. Fixed- and random-effects models in meta-analysis. Psychological Methods. 1998;3(4):486–504. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.3.4.486

42. Dewaele J.M., MacIntyre P.D. The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching. 2014;4(2):237–274. doi:10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.2.5

43. Plonsky L., Oswald F.L. How big is “big”? Interpreting effect sizes in L2 research. Language Learning. 2014;64(4):878–912. doi:10.1111/lang.12079

44. Oxford R. Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies: Self-Regulation in Context. New York: Routledge; 2016. 370 p.

45. Luo L., Feng X., Li P. Aging and bilingualism: cognitive consequences of late-life second language learning. Neuropsychologia. 2023;180:108441. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2023.108441

46. Ge Y., Correia S., Lee Y.W., Jin Z., Rothman J., Rebuschat P. Statistical learning of foreign language words in younger and older adults. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 2025;28(3):716–727. doi:10.1017/S1366728924000907

47. Peng Q., Li S. Emotional factor matters in language learning? A meta-analysis of emotional intelligence on language achievement. Frontiers in Psychology. 2025;16:1502112.

48. Cooper H. Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis: A Step-by-Step Approach. 5th ed. SAGE Publications; 2017. 360 p.

49. Moher D., Liberati A., Tetzlaff J., Altman D.G., PRISMA Group. PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. British Medical Journal. 2021;372:n71. doi:10.1136/bmj.n71

50. Borenstein J.R., Hennessy E.A., Tsuji S. Transparency and reproducibility in meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods. 2020;11(5):702–713. doi:10.1002/jrsm.1449

51. Borenstein M., Hedges L.V., Higgins J.P.T., Rothstein H.R. Introduction to Meta-Analysis. John Wiley & Sons; 2011. 456 p.

52. Cohen J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. 2nd ed. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1988. 461 p.

53. Birdsong D. Plasticity, variability and age in second language acquisition and bilingualism. Frontiers in Psychology. 2018;9. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00081

54. Luo L., Craik F.I.M., Moreno S., Bialystok E. Lifelong bilingualism maintains neural efficiency for cognitive control in aging. Journal of Neuroscience. 2019;39(37):7216–7225. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2494-18.2019

55. Ortega L. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Routledge; 2014. 320 p.

56. Banales E., Linck J.A., Schweiter E. Methodological moderators in L2 reading span tasks. Second Language Research. 2020;36(3):323–347. doi:10.1177/0267658319846992

57. Higgins J.T., Thomas J., Chandler J., Cumpston M., Li T., Page M.J., et al., ed. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons; 2019. 736 p.

58. Polanin J.R., Hennessy E.A., Tsuji S. Transparency and reproducibility of meta-analyses in psychology: a meta-review. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2020;15(4):1026–1041. doi:10.1177/1745691620906416

59. Birdsong D. Age and second language acquisition and processing: a selective overview. Language Learning. 2006;56(S1):9–49. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2006.00353.x

60. Harrer M., Cuijpers P., Furukawa T.A., Ebert D.D. Doing Meta-Analysis with R: A Hands-on Guide. Chapman & Hall/CRC Press; 2021. 500 p. doi:10.1201/9781003107347

61. Horwitz E.K., Horwitz M.B., Cope J. Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal. 1986;70(2):125–132. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.1986.tb05256.x

62. Dewaele J.M., Witney J., Saito K., Dewaele L. Foreign language enjoyment and anxiety: the effect of teacher and learner variables. Language Teaching Research. 2017;22(6):676–697. doi:10.1177/1362168817692161

63. Egger M., Davey S.G., Schneider M., Minder C. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. British Medical Journal. 1997;315(7109):629–634. doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629

64. Duval S., Tweedie R. Trim and fill: a simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics. 2000;56(2):455–463. doi:10.1111/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x

65. Norton B., De Costa P.I. Research tasks on identity in language learning and teaching. Language Teaching. 2018;51(1):90–112. doi:10.1017/S0261444817000325

66. Bialystok E., Poarch G.J., Luo L., Craik F.M. Effects of bilingualism and aging on executive function and working memory. Psychology and Aging. 2014;29(3):696–705. doi:10.1037/a0037254

67. Godwin-Jones R. Chasing the butterfly effect: informal language learning online as a complex system. Language Learning & Technology. 2018;22(2):8–27. doi:10.64152/10125/44643

68. Dörnyei Z. The Psychology of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press; 2009. 356 p.

69. Loewen S., Sato M. The Routledge Handbook of Instructed Second Language Acquisition. New York: Routledge; 2017. 618 p.

70. Miyake A., Friedman N.P., Emerson M.J., Witzki A.H., Howerter A. The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology. 2000;41(1):49–100. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

71. Martin K.I., Ellis N.C. The roles of phonological short-term memory and working memory in L2 grammar and vocabulary learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 2012;34(3):379–413. doi:10.1017/S0272263112000125

72. Engle R.W. Working memory and executive attention: a revisit. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2018;13(2):190–193. doi:10.1177/1745691617720478

73. MacIntyre P.D., Gregersen T. Emotions that facilitate language learning: the positive-broadening power of the imagination. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching. 2012;2(2):193–213. doi:10.14746/ssllt.2012.2.2.4

74. Alptekin C., Erçetin G. The role of L1 and L2 working memory in literal and inferential comprehension in L2 reading. Journal of Research in Reading. 2010;33(2):206–219. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2009.01412.x

75. Gullifer J.W., Titone D. Engaging proactive control: influences of diverse language experiences using insights from machine learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 2021;150(3):414–430. doi:10.1037/xge0000933