Psycholinguistic and age factors in foreign language learning: a meta-analysis

Introduction. Contemporary research in second or foreign language (L2) acquisition integrates cognitive, affective, and sociocultural factors. However, variability in findings arises from methodological heterogeneity and differences in learner age. Aim. The present study aimed to systematise empirical data on the influence of working memory (WM), executive functions (EF), motivation, emotional intelligence, and anxiety on L2 acquisition success across different age groups, and to identify moderators related to task type and learning context. Methodology and research methods. In accordance with PRISMA guidelines, a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies published from 2000 to September 2025 was conducted using the Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar databases. The inclusion criterion was the presence of a quantitative assessment of the relationship between at least one specified psycholinguistic factor and L2 performance. Random-effects models (REML), heterogeneity assessments (Q, τ², I²), Egger’s test for bias detection, and the trim-and-fill method were applied. Age, type of language task, and context (ESL/EFL/language environment) were included in the moderator analysis. Results. Out of 1,246 publications, 38 studies met the criteria. Strong correlations were found between L2 success and WM (r ≈ 0.54) and EF (d ≈ 0.46), as well as positive associations with motivation (r ≈ 0.32) and emotional intelligence (r ≈ 0.29). A negative correlation was observed with anxiety (r ≈ -0.25). These effects were more pronounced for lexical and reading tasks, in English as a Second Language (ESL) and language immersion contexts, and among young adults. For learners over 60, significant but more variable improvements were noted. Scientific novelty. Subject-specific and age-dependent mechanisms linking WM/EF to L2 outcomes have been identified. Methodological moderators related to research design have been quantitatively assessed for the first time. Practical significance. The results underscore the necessity of developing age- and context-specific methodologies that integrate a focus on form with the enhancement of EF/WM and anxiety regulation, utilising adaptive technologies – particularly for teaching older age groups.

1. Bialysto E. Reshaping the mind: the benefits of bilingualism. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. 2011;65(4):229–235. doi:10.1037/a0025406

2. Kroll J.F., Bialystok E. Understanding the consequences of bilingualism for language processing and cognition. Journal of Cognitive Psychology. 2013;25(5):497–514. doi:10.1080/20445911.2013.799170

3. Kapa L.L., Colombo J. Executive function predicts cognitive outcomes in bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 2017;20(1):83–97. doi:10.1017/S136672891500059X

4. Li P., Legault J., Litcofsky K.A. Neuroplasticity as a function of second language learning: anatomical changes in the human brain. Cortex. 2020;129:297–310. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2020.04.020

5. Cox J., Kapa L.L., Colombo J. Individual differences in executive function partially explain the effects of bilingualism on language processing. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 2019;22(3):425–436. doi:10.1017/S136672891800015X

6. Wen Z., Li S. Working memory and second language learning: towards an integrated approach. Applied Linguistics. 2019;40(2):265–284. doi:10.1093/applin/amx024

7. Baddeley A.D. Working memory: looking back and looking forward. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2003;10:829–839. doi:10.1038/nrn1201

8. Miyake A., Friedman N.P. The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2012;21(1):8–14. doi:10.1177/0963721411429458

9. Norton B. Identity, language learning, and social change. Language Teaching. 2020;53(2):194–207. doi:10.1017/S0261444819000325

10. Shin J. Meta-analysis of the relationship between working memory and L2 reading comprehension. Applied Psycholinguistics. 2020a;41(5):1081–1115. doi:10.1017/S014271642000023X

11. Shin J. A meta-analysis of the relationship between working memory and second language reading comprehension: does task type matter? Applied Psycholinguistics. 2020;41(4):873–900. doi:10.1017/S0142716420000272

12. O’Brien I., Opitz B. Working memory and second language sentence processing: evidence from neuroimaging. Neuropsychologia. 2020;139:107360. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107360

13. Dörnyei Z., Ushioda E. Teaching and Researching Motivation. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge; 2021. 296 p. doi:10.4324/9781351006743

14. De Costa P.I., Norton B. Identity in language learning and teaching: research agendas for the future. In: Preece S., ed. The Routledge Handbook of Language and Identity. Abingdon: Routledge; 2016:586–601.

15. Baddeley A. Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annual Review of Psychology. 2012;63:1–29. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422

16. Norton B., Toohey K. Identity, language learning, and social change. Language Teaching. 2011;44(4):412–446. doi:10.1017/S0261444811000309

17. Ellis N.C. Cognitive approaches to second language acquisition. In: Gass S., Spinner P., Behney J., eds. Salience in Second Language Acquisition. Routledge; 2017:11–44.

18. Green D.W., Abutalebi J. Language control in bilinguals: the adaptive control hypothesis. Journal of Cognitive Psychology. 2013;25(5):515–530. doi:10.1080/20445911.2013.796377

19. Skehan P. The context for researching a processing perspective on task performance. In: Skehan P., ed. Processing Perspectives on Task Performance. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company; 2014:1–26.

20. Linck J.A., Osthus P., Koeth J.T., Bunting M.F. Working memory and second language comprehension and production: a meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 2014;21(4):861–883. doi:10.3758/s13423-013-0565-2

21. Choi I. Working memory effects in second language reading. Applied Psycholinguistics. 2013;34(6):1257–1282. doi:10.1017/S0142716412000208

22. Sweller J., Ayres P., Kalyuga S. Cognitive Load Theory. New York: Springer; 2011. 274 p.

23. Paas F., Sweller J. An evolutionary upgrade of cognitive load theory: using the human motor system and collaboration to support the learning of complex cognitive tasks. Educational Psychology Review. 2012;24(1):27–45. doi:10.1007/s10648-011-9179-2

24. Lenneberg E.H. Biological Foundations of Language. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1967. 489 p.

25. Johnson J.S., Newport E.L. Critical period effects in second language learning: the influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology. 1989;21(1):60–99. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(89)90003-0

26. Hartshorne J.K., Tenenbaum J.B., Pinker S. A critical period for second language acquisition: evidence from 2/3 million English speakers. Cognition. 2018;177:263–277. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2018.04.007

27. Sawi O.M., Rueckl J.G. Reading and the neurocognitive bases of second language learning. Language Learning. 2019;69(S1):52–82. doi:10.1111/lang.12323

28. Saito K., Dewaele J.M, Abe M., In’nami Y. Motivation, emotion, and second language speech development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 2020;42(4):857–880. doi:10.1017/S0272263120000038

29. DeKeyser R., Larson-Hall J. What does the critical period really mean? In: Chapelle C., ed. The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Wiley; 2021:414–420.

30. Grossmann J.A., Aschenbrenner S., Teichmann B., Meyer P. Foreign language learning can improve response inhibition in individuals with lower baseline cognition: results from a randomized controlled superiority trial. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience. 2023;15:1123185. doi:10.3389/fnagi.2023.1123185

31. Meltzer J.A., Kates Rose M., Le A.Y., Spencer K.A., Goldstein L, Gubanova A., et al. Improvement in executive function for older adults through smartphone apps: a randomized clinical trial comparing language learning and brain training. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition. 2023;30(2):150–171. doi:10.1080/13825585.2021.1991262

32. Diamond A. Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology. 2013;64:135–168. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750

33. Sun H., Steinkrauss R., Wieling M., de Bot K. Predicting L2 proficiency from executive function measures. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 2023;26(2):299–314. doi:10.1017/S1366728922000337

34. Yurgil K.A., Golestani N. Bilingualism as a model for multitasking, cognitive reserve, and cognitive resilience. Neuropsychologia. 2018;111:286–297. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.01.012

35. Bubbico G., Tomaiuolo F., Sestieri C., Akhlaghipour G., Granzotto A., Martinotti G., et al. Foreign language learning in older adults modifies the pattern of resting-state activity in the medial prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neurological Sciences. 2025;475:123568. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2025.123568

36. Sun P., Li C., Liang Z. Working memory, L2 proficiency, and L2 speech performance across different task types. Language Teaching Research. 2025. doi:10.1177/13621688251368633

37. Ushioda E. Language Learning Motivation: An Ethical Agenda for Research. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2020. 46 p.

38. Papi M., Bondarenko A., Mansouri S., Feng L., Jiang C. Rethinking L2 motivation theory: the motivated self and emergent motivation. System. 2019;84:38–49. doi:10.1016/j.system.2019.04.011

39. Williams M., Sarah M., Stephen R. Exploring Psychology in Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford University Press; 2019. 184 p.

40. Lamb M., Arisandy F.E. The impact of technology on motivation in EFL classrooms. Language Teaching Research. 2020;24(3):326–345. doi:10.1177/1362168818788895

41. Hedges L.V., Vevea J.L. Fixed- and random-effects models in meta-analysis. Psychological Methods. 1998;3(4):486–504. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.3.4.486

42. Dewaele J.M., MacIntyre P.D. The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching. 2014;4(2):237–274. doi:10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.2.5

43. Plonsky L., Oswald F.L. How big is “big”? Interpreting effect sizes in L2 research. Language Learning. 2014;64(4):878–912. doi:10.1111/lang.12079

44. Oxford R. Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies: Self-Regulation in Context. New York: Routledge; 2016. 370 p.

45. Luo L., Feng X., Li P. Aging and bilingualism: cognitive consequences of late-life second language learning. Neuropsychologia. 2023;180:108441. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2023.108441

46. Ge Y., Correia S., Lee Y.W., Jin Z., Rothman J., Rebuschat P. Statistical learning of foreign language words in younger and older adults. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 2025;28(3):716–727. doi:10.1017/S1366728924000907

47. Peng Q., Li S. Emotional factor matters in language learning? A meta-analysis of emotional intelligence on language achievement. Frontiers in Psychology. 2025;16:1502112.

48. Cooper H. Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis: A Step-by-Step Approach. 5th ed. SAGE Publications; 2017. 360 p.

49. Moher D., Liberati A., Tetzlaff J., Altman D.G., PRISMA Group. PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. British Medical Journal. 2021;372:n71. doi:10.1136/bmj.n71

50. Borenstein J.R., Hennessy E.A., Tsuji S. Transparency and reproducibility in meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods. 2020;11(5):702–713. doi:10.1002/jrsm.1449

51. Borenstein M., Hedges L.V., Higgins J.P.T., Rothstein H.R. Introduction to Meta-Analysis. John Wiley & Sons; 2011. 456 p.

52. Cohen J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. 2nd ed. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1988. 461 p.

53. Birdsong D. Plasticity, variability and age in second language acquisition and bilingualism. Frontiers in Psychology. 2018;9. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00081

54. Luo L., Craik F.I.M., Moreno S., Bialystok E. Lifelong bilingualism maintains neural efficiency for cognitive control in aging. Journal of Neuroscience. 2019;39(37):7216–7225. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2494-18.2019

55. Ortega L. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Routledge; 2014. 320 p.

56. Banales E., Linck J.A., Schweiter E. Methodological moderators in L2 reading span tasks. Second Language Research. 2020;36(3):323–347. doi:10.1177/0267658319846992

57. Higgins J.T., Thomas J., Chandler J., Cumpston M., Li T., Page M.J., et al., ed. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons; 2019. 736 p.

58. Polanin J.R., Hennessy E.A., Tsuji S. Transparency and reproducibility of meta-analyses in psychology: a meta-review. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2020;15(4):1026–1041. doi:10.1177/1745691620906416

59. Birdsong D. Age and second language acquisition and processing: a selective overview. Language Learning. 2006;56(S1):9–49. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2006.00353.x

60. Harrer M., Cuijpers P., Furukawa T.A., Ebert D.D. Doing Meta-Analysis with R: A Hands-on Guide. Chapman & Hall/CRC Press; 2021. 500 p. doi:10.1201/9781003107347

61. Horwitz E.K., Horwitz M.B., Cope J. Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal. 1986;70(2):125–132. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.1986.tb05256.x

62. Dewaele J.M., Witney J., Saito K., Dewaele L. Foreign language enjoyment and anxiety: the effect of teacher and learner variables. Language Teaching Research. 2017;22(6):676–697. doi:10.1177/1362168817692161

63. Egger M., Davey S.G., Schneider M., Minder C. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. British Medical Journal. 1997;315(7109):629–634. doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629

64. Duval S., Tweedie R. Trim and fill: a simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics. 2000;56(2):455–463. doi:10.1111/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x

65. Norton B., De Costa P.I. Research tasks on identity in language learning and teaching. Language Teaching. 2018;51(1):90–112. doi:10.1017/S0261444817000325

66. Bialystok E., Poarch G.J., Luo L., Craik F.M. Effects of bilingualism and aging on executive function and working memory. Psychology and Aging. 2014;29(3):696–705. doi:10.1037/a0037254

67. Godwin-Jones R. Chasing the butterfly effect: informal language learning online as a complex system. Language Learning & Technology. 2018;22(2):8–27. doi:10.64152/10125/44643

68. Dörnyei Z. The Psychology of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press; 2009. 356 p.

69. Loewen S., Sato M. The Routledge Handbook of Instructed Second Language Acquisition. New York: Routledge; 2017. 618 p.

70. Miyake A., Friedman N.P., Emerson M.J., Witzki A.H., Howerter A. The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology. 2000;41(1):49–100. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

71. Martin K.I., Ellis N.C. The roles of phonological short-term memory and working memory in L2 grammar and vocabulary learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 2012;34(3):379–413. doi:10.1017/S0272263112000125

72. Engle R.W. Working memory and executive attention: a revisit. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2018;13(2):190–193. doi:10.1177/1745691617720478

73. MacIntyre P.D., Gregersen T. Emotions that facilitate language learning: the positive-broadening power of the imagination. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching. 2012;2(2):193–213. doi:10.14746/ssllt.2012.2.2.4

74. Alptekin C., Erçetin G. The role of L1 and L2 working memory in literal and inferential comprehension in L2 reading. Journal of Research in Reading. 2010;33(2):206–219. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2009.01412.x

75. Gullifer J.W., Titone D. Engaging proactive control: influences of diverse language experiences using insights from machine learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 2021;150(3):414–430. doi:10.1037/xge0000933